Executive summary
Stronger brains strengthen resilience, productivity, and shared prosperity. It is time to invest accordingly.
The brain is the body’s most complex and vital organ, regulating everything from basic life functions to complex decision-making. It is also the foundation of how people live, work, and connect, making it central to individual well-being, high-performing organizations, and resilient economies. Despite rapid technological advances, nothing yet replicates the brain’s capacity to contribute to society.
AI will reshape work, and competitiveness will hinge on combining human and machine strengths. Countries and companies must evolve their strategies to enable collaboration and harness the complementary strengths of human intelligence and technology, or risk slower growth and being left behind in the next era of the global economy. And while the stakes are high if we fail to invest in the health of our brains and the skills that make us uniquely human, the potential gains—individually, socially, and economically—are even greater if we choose to do so.
In this report, brain health is defined as a state of optimal brain functioning, supported by the promotion of healthy brain development and the prevention or treatment of mental, neurological, and substance use disorders in people of all ages. But health alone is not enough. Brain skills—the foundational cognitive, interpersonal, self-leadership, and technological literacy abilities that enable people to adapt, relate, and contribute meaningfully—are equally critical to societal progress. Together, these form what is called brain capital.
Underinvestment in the brain has a substantial cost. The global disease burden of brain health conditions is rising, driven by an aging population, increased stressors, and elevated uncertainty about the future. When societies overlook the brain’s central role in health and productivity, the impact is felt in disrupted lives, lost potential, and a heavy toll on families and caregivers. Scaling cost-effective interventions to prevent, treat, and help people recover from brain health conditions could avert 267 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) globally by 2050, generating up to $6.2 trillion in cumulative GDP gains.1 Investing early can create even greater returns—quality early-childhood programs have demonstrated annual returns of 7 to 13 percent and delivered benefit-to-cost ratios of up to nine to one in low- and middle-income countries.2
In this report by the McKinsey Health Institute, in collaboration with the World Economic Forum, the authors make the case for investing in the brain, introduce five levers for action, and offer a road map for next steps. While specific actions may vary by stakeholder, region, or sector, there is a need for a shared aspiration and framework for change. This report aims to fill that gap.
Introduction
Building brain capital means valuing and investing in the brain health and brain skills of people of all ages.
The brain is the body’s most complex and vital organ, governing everything from basic life functions, such as breathing, to advanced cognition, emotional regulation, and complex decision-making. Strengthening brain health has benefits beyond the brain, with positive associations across multiple dimensions of health, including metabolic, cardiovascular, social, emotional, and spiritual health. For example, a five-point higher Brain Care Score—a measure evaluating modifiable brain health factors—is associated with a 43 percent lower risk of developing cardiovascular disease and a 31 percent lower incidence of lung, colorectal, and breast cancer.3 Proactively building positive brain health and strengthening brain skills can improve social cohesion, enhance holistic health, strengthen societal stability, and promote inclusive economic growth.4 Anyone who has experienced depression, watched a child struggle in school, taken care of a loved one with Alzheimer’s disease (AD), or seen coworkers struggle with cognitive overload can grasp the benefits of investing in stronger brains.
Despite its central importance, the brain has long been underprioritized in global policy and investment. This is not for lack of effort; researchers, advocates, and practitioners have been making the case for decades,5 but until recently, fragmented definitions, limited measurement tools, and prejudice and discrimination around mental, neurological, and substance use (MNS) disorders have made it difficult to unify action or elevate brain health and brain skills as economic priorities. Today, advances in science, a clearer understanding of the brain’s role in productivity and resilience, and growing global attention to disruption related to artificial intelligence are creating a moment where coordinated investment in the brain has become an economic imperative.
Just as the Industrial Revolution transformed societies from agrarian to machine-focused, reframing investments, driving innovation, and catalyzing global progress, a similar shift is needed to maximize human potential. This is where brain capital enters the conversation.
Brain capital combines two elements: brain health—a state of optimal brain functioning supported by the promotion of healthy brain development and prevention or treatment of MNS disorders—and brain skills, which are the foundational cognitive, interpersonal, self-leadership, and technological literacy abilities that enable people to adapt, relate, and contribute meaningfully. These two elements are a natural pairing, with emerging science highlighting the interrelationship between brain health conditions and brain skills. For example, common modifiable risk and protective factors such as stress, sleep, and community engagement have proven benefits across brain health and brain skills, suggesting that interventions targeting brain health can have cascading benefits across brain skills and vice versa.6
The brain and skills
While nearly all human abilities are mediated by the brain, brain skills in this report do not refer to everything that the brain does, but rather focus on the capabilities that draw heavily on higher-order cognitive, emotional, and adaptive functions, such as metacognition and complex decision-making. There is a difference between using the brain to follow a “known recipe” and using it to invent a new one while under pressure. For example, knowing a particular workflow is becoming less valuable in the workplace compared with having the ability to rethink the approach when circumstances change. The latter ability refers to the term brain skills within the context of this report. This term is used as shorthand to indicate the nontechnical skills that are often overlooked in formal education and training but have an outsize impact on human performance. These include skills such as creative and analytical thinking, resilience, and flexibility, which give individuals the capacity to respond to change with agility and resilience and are aligned with recent research by the World Economic Forum and others on the future of skills in the workplace.1
This report offers a road map for stakeholders to build brain capital and draws from a year of global convenings and dialogues facilitated by the World Economic Forum’s Brain Economy Action Forum, which has identified five levers to build brain capital:
- Safeguard brain health by ensuring access to effective care for brain health conditions and promoting brain health across the life course.
- Foster brain skills for the next generation, current workers, and those in later life.
- Study brain capital by defining it as an interdisciplinary field, developing robust measures, and expanding research and development to drive progress.
- Invest in brain capital by funding products, services, and systems that improve brain capital, using both traditional and innovative financial instruments.
- Mobilize for brain capital by forging a coordinated global movement that aligns stakeholders around a shared vision and road map to build brain capital.
The following sections offer more detail on each lever, as well as actions for stakeholders to consider.
Strong brain health lays the foundation for resilient individuals, organizations, and communities
Underinvestment in the brain carries a profound opportunity cost. Based on 2025 burden projections, brain health conditions (including the primary and associated burden for MNS disorders, stroke, and self-harm) account for 24 percent of the total global disease burden.7 Safeguarding brain health requires action across the life course, as different risks and opportunities emerge from early childhood to old age. Half of all mental health conditions appear by the age of 14, and three-quarters by the age of 24.8 Neurodevelopmental conditions, such as autism spectrum disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, emerge in young children, while other neurological conditions, such as epilepsy or migraine, may occur at any age. Neurodegenerative conditions, such as AD and related dementias, are overwhelmingly conditions of older age, with the number of adults over 65 living with dementia rising globally by 160 percent in the past three decades—from 18.7 million in 1991 to 49 million in 2021.9
Behind these numbers are more than one billion disrupted lives, from children unable to reach their full potential to older adults losing their independence (Exhibit 1).
Behind the data: Women’s brain health
Certain brain-related conditions—including depression, anxiety, dementias, and migraines—disproportionately affect women. For example, two-thirds of people living with Alzheimer’s disease globally are women.1 Many of the conditions that shorten women’s health span (for example, endometriosis) or lifespan (for example, breast cancer) also have close links to mental health challenges, compounding the overall burden. Even natural biological transitions can introduce brain health challenges. During menopause, the precipitous decline of estrogen can increase the risk of cognitive decline, a symptom associated with mild cognitive impairment and dementia.2 Research is still nascent in many areas of women’s brain health, with the first comprehensive mapping of the maternal brain from preconception through the postpartum period not published until 2024.3 Mental and neurological disorders account for nearly 25 percent of the $1 trillion annual global GDP gains that could be realized by 2040 by closing the women’s health gap.4 Incorporating sex-based approaches in care and intervention can address gaps in efficacy, adoption, and uptake that could affect both men and women.
Safeguarding brain health means 1) supporting promotion of healthy brain function and prevention of brain health conditions across the life course; 2) scaling access to evidence-based treatment and services; and 3) innovating to advance promotion of brain health and treatment for brain health conditions.
1. Support promotion of healthy brain function and prevention of brain health conditions across the life course
Brain health is shaped across the life course. From conception onward, multiple windows of vulnerability and opportunity determine brain development, function, and resilience. Yet many health systems are designed to treat acute symptoms in adulthood, missing opportunities to strengthen brain health earlier and more effectively.
Proactive age- and sex-appropriate interventions can protect brain health before problems arise. For example, access to quality prenatal and perinatal care promotes healthy brain development before birth.10 In early childhood, ensuring adequate nutrition,11 reducing toxic stress,12 and providing timely screening13 can improve a child’s neurodevelopment.14 Proactive interventions are also critical later in life. About 85 percent of the global health impact of stroke is causally linked to one or more of 23 modifiable risk factors that include high blood pressure, air pollution, unhealthy diets, lack of physical activity, and alcohol use.15 For brain health in older adults, the US POINTER study highlights the benefits of combined lifestyle interventions, such as neuroprotective diets, exercise, and cognitive training.16 These interventions also drive healthy longevity, reinforcing the links between brain health, metabolic health, and cardiovascular resilience.17
Early detection also plays a critical role. Cognitive and behavioral assessment tools, with emerging evidence around digital and biological biomarkers, can establish a baseline and identify issues early, supporting behavioral changes or early intervention when needed.18
Promoting brain health across the life course, within and beyond health systems, is essential to building population-level brain capital and reducing the compounding effects of untreated conditions.
2. Scale access to evidence-based treatment and services for brain health conditions
While many brain health conditions may not have a known cure, they are treatable. Scaling access to proven brain health interventions could reduce the global burden of disease by more than 260 million DALYs—a measure that captures both years lost to early death and years lived with illness or disability.19 This could result in up to $6.2 trillion in cumulative GDP gains, with more people able to live fully, contribute meaningfully, and sustain their roles as parents, partners, and community members.20
Timely access to effective care matters across the life course. For example, a child who is neurodivergent needs timely support to learn and thrive, a mother experiencing depression needs care to regain stability for herself and her child, and an older adult facing dementia deserves early identification and respectful care. Treatment gaps remain widespread across all settings and are particularly stark in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where more than 75 percent of people with MNS disorders go without access to adequate services and supports.21 When care is available, it is often fragmented, outdated, or not adapted to the cultural and practical realities of local communities. Without consistent quality, patients are less likely to improve, and governments and health systems lose the opportunity to achieve meaningful returns on their investments.
This gap comes at a high human and economic cost, including lost productivity and premature death. It also places a substantial burden on caregivers, who often face lost income, reduced workforce participation, and increased health risks themselves. Yet many countries lack the financing, workforce, and basic infrastructure to deliver consistent care. Investment remains low, with only 2 percent of global government health budgets allocated to mental health.22 Many communities lack an adequate brain health workforce. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa, there is, on average, only one psychiatrist for every million people.23 Globally, there are an estimated 0.93 neurosurgeons per 100,000 population, with only half of high-income countries meeting the target of one per 100,000 and no low-income countries reaching this bar.24 Yet neurosurgical conditions such as hydrocephalus, stroke, epilepsy, and traumatic brain or spinal cord injuries affect millions worldwide and, without surgical intervention, can lead to preventable cognitive decline and long-term disability.
Even where proven interventions and a trained workforce are available, access can be limited by other barriers, such as weak supply chains that limit the availability of medications. Essential medicine to treat epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, and other MNS disorders remains low across primary healthcare settings, particularly in regions of Africa, Southeast Asia, and other LMICs.25 An example of a government addressing this is Tanzania’s Ministry of Health, which worked with WHO to conduct special procurements and update the National Health Insurance Fund to include coverage for essential medicines.26 While initiatives such as this demonstrate progress in expanding access, challenges persist globally.
To close the treatment gap, proven solutions should be scaled through innovation that enables large-scale delivery across the globe. For example, one scalable approach to alleviating workforce challenges is to expand the role of technology and nonspecialist providers. This includes at-scale deployment of proven strategies such as training and empowering individuals (for example, community health workers and peer counselors) to deliver basic care for MNS disorders. Community-level care and nonspecialist workers can provide some care to more than 90 percent of the patients who do not receive care today in LMICs.27 There is also potential to harness the power of technology and AI to extend where and how care can be delivered, focusing on AI solutions that are designed to support care providers rather than directly interacting with patients.28
Evidence from life course modeling29 and WHO30 shows that there is sufficient evidence today to innovate and implement interventions that promote brain health across the lifespan. When patients, clinicians, and the public are engaged, interventions are more culturally appropriate, sustainable, and effective.
3. Innovate to advance the promotion of brain health and treatment of brain health conditions
To truly safeguard brain health, consider moving beyond scaling existing strategies and interventions by innovating to better promote brain health, prevent disease, and treat brain health conditions across the life course. Prior analyses have generally concluded that too little is spent on mental health research as a proportion of global health research relative to the morbidity, mortality, and economic burden attributable to mental disorders globally.31 Additionally, most mental health research funding comes from high-income countries (HICs), potentially limiting the applicability of findings to a wider share of the global population.32 In aggregate, the landscape looks different when it comes to neurological research. Particularly in HICs, funding levels for neurological research are relatively high. However, when compared with the burden of neurological disorders globally, investment gaps remain—notably in translational research to adapt and scale interventions in lower-resource settings.33
When it comes to safeguarding brain health, advances in breakthrough technologies are opening new frontiers in the understanding and monitoring of brain function, with major implications for diagnosis and innovation that can positively impact large swaths of the global population. For example, more than 55 million people globally currently live with dementia, primarily with AD, and this number is expected to double every 20 years.34 Research suggests that in the United States alone, by 2050, the number of individuals over age 70 with AD will increase to 9.1 million.35 In this context, medical advances that delay the onset of AD for five years could result in a 41 percent lower prevalence and 40 percent lower cost of AD in 2050.36
The innovation potential for AD is just one example among many. Overall, innovation to address even 10 percent of today’s unaddressed global brain health burden could yield an additional estimated 54 million DALYs by 2050.37
Brain skills fuel adaptability, creativity, and performance amid accelerating change
Stakeholders can foster brain skills across the life course, from childhood through older adulthood. These skills can be strengthened in many ways, including 1) providing children and young people with access to safe, enriching environments that support the development of future-ready brain skills, and 2) promoting brain skills through workplace interventions.38
Brain health provides a foundation for acquiring, developing, and using what are termed brain skills—the foundational and higher-order cognitive, interpersonal, self-leadership, and technological literacy abilities that enable people to adapt, relate, and contribute meaningfully. The returns on investing in brain skills are substantial, particularly when investments begin early, with quality early-childhood programs generating 7 to 13 percent in annual returns and delivering benefit-to-cost ratios of up to nine to one in LMICs.39 These returns translate to better-equipped workforces and societies.
In the age of AI, fostering brain skills is more critical than ever. Every year, the World Economic Forum surveys more than 1,000 employers across 55 economies and 22 industry clusters to understand how the needs of employers are evolving. In 2025, it found that, on average, 59 percent of employees will need additional training to meet evolving skill demands by 2030.40 When employers are asked what skills are most critical for the workplace of today and what skills are most critical for the future, those defined as “brain skills” are overrepresented in both categories (Exhibit 2).
While not the focus of this section, the importance of brain skills does not diminish as individuals age. Building and maintaining strong brain skills later in life enables individuals to work longer if they choose, protects against elder fraud, and supports continued independence and meaningful engagement with others.
There is research from multiple disciplines—including education,41 economics,42 psychology,43 adult learning,44 neuroscience,45 sociology,46 and organizational behavior47—to guide the understanding and development of brain skills across the life course. Despite compelling evidence from these fields, brain skills development remains undervalued and underexplored. These skills can be strengthened by 1) providing children and young people with access to safe, enriching environments that support the development of future-ready brain skills, and 2) promoting brain skills through workplace interventions.
1. Provide children and young people with access to safe, enriching environments that support the development of future-ready brain skills
Children and young people worldwide are navigating increasing complexity and uncertainty. Yet their core environments can remain disconnected from what science tells us about how young brains develop. Broad scientific consensus exists that brain development and skill formation are deeply shaped by experiences, including the development of resilience and hope.48 Organizations that rely on people with complex problem-solving skills, emotional intelligence, and cognitive flexibility have a vested interest in ensuring that these brain skills are nurtured before young people reach the workforce. As technology continues to reshape work, the gap between what education systems teach and what workplaces need is widening, making strategic alignment between brain skill development and evolving workforce demands increasingly urgent.
Early learning programs are particularly critical, especially when they combine education with health, nutrition support, and family engagement. The Heckman Curve indicates that investing early in children yields the greatest economic returns: the HighScope Perry Preschool program generated 7 to 10 percent annual returns, while the Carolina Abecedarian Project and the Carolina Approach to Responsive Education averaged 13.7 percent.49 In LMICs, quality early-childhood care and education for all children could deliver a nine-to-one benefit-to-cost ratio,50 while Jamaica’s 20-year study showed 25 percent higher wages for those receiving high-quality early stimulation.51
In addition to early-childhood development programs, education systems have opportunities for creating near-term impact in brain skill development. Daily experiences across outdoor and sports programs can build teamwork and executive function through movement,52 digital environments can prioritize age-appropriate content that strengthens self-regulation and attention,53 and workforce preparation programs54 can offer mentorship and project-based learning to strengthen persistence and self-direction. This is particularly critical given the rapid rise in AI exposure among youth. Just as employees are undergoing brain skills training, children and young people will require support to develop the skills to thrive in an AI-driven world. Prioritizing brain skills today will shape the workforce of tomorrow.
Brain skills are fostered across the life course. This means recognizing that early childhood and adolescent development are part of the talent pipeline.
2. Promote brain skills through workplace interventions
Adults spend a third of their lives at work,55 making the workplace a powerful environment for strengthening or eroding brain capital. More than one in five employees globally experience symptoms of burnout.56 Proactive investment in employee health, inclusive of brain health, could increase global GDP by up to 12 percent and generate up to $11.7 trillion in economic value.57 As populations live and work longer, supporting the workforce—from new entrants to those in the later stages of their careers—through stronger brain health and brain skills will become increasingly important for sustaining productive working lives.
AI is amplifying the urgency and the opportunity. The ability to use and manage AI tools strategically and effectively has grown sevenfold in just two years.58 Workplaces will want to consider how AI affects employees’ cognitive demands, as well as how human judgment, creativity, and communication will continue to shape AI’s evolution. AI-enabled changes should be paired with deliberate investment in brain skills and integrated into emerging workflows. Without this, organizations risk losing their competitive edge and driving up preventable costs through declining employee well-being.
Brain skills training and workflow integration can make AI adoption more effective by enabling employees to adapt, solve problems, and work together in hybrid intelligence environments. For example, an organization may encourage the use of AI for scheduling, translations, or administrative tasks, while ensuring employees maintain the human capabilities such as communication, mentoring, and critical thinking that drive trust and performance. Brain skills such as resilience, self-efficacy,59 and adaptability have emerged as top drivers of self-rated performance and innovative behavior.60 A 30-country study of global workers found adaptability and self-efficacy to be the leading determinants of whether employees felt they were thriving, not just performing.61
Prioritizing employee health can lead to substantial return on investment.62 For example, a sportswear company implemented a program that included access to a self-care library, coaching sessions, internal well-being (including brain skills) workshops, and interpersonal skills training for managers.63 These efforts delivered an 11.6-fold increase in ROI.64
Paradoxically, the uncertain conditions that make adapting so important—specifically the rise of AI tools—can result in some leaders resisting change and defaulting to reactive behavior.65 In the face of sustained cognitive and emotional demands, executives will need to demonstrate critical brain skills such as self-regulation, clarity, and mental stamina. There are organizational changes that can be made to integrate brain skills into culture, workflows, skills taxonomies, learning programs, performance management, and employee development. For example, employee training focused on work-related psychological flexibility has been associated with improved stress resilience, reduced exhaustion, and increased personal accomplishment.66 Additionally, tools such as wearables or digital trackers that monitor sleep or fitness may be helpful: Leaders can benefit from managing their mental and emotional energy as rigorously as athletes manage their mental and physical performance.67
Ongoing research now clarifies where employers should focus for the greatest impact. Tools such as the unified model of brain health are helping guide smart and strategic investments.68 Organizations that invest in building brain skills from the inside out will be better equipped to innovate, retain top talent, and thrive amid constant change.
Data deep dive: Cross-cutting factors that drive workplace well-being and performance
Developed by UsAgainstAlzheimer’s in collaboration with the Davos Alzheimer’s Collaborative and McKinsey Health Institute, the unified model of brain health provides a common framework for understanding how the brain influences mental well-being, cognitive function, and workplace performance (exhibit). Employers can use this model to assess where their current policies and practices support or hinder brain health, identify high-impact opportunities for interventions, and align strategies with business goals. It offers a clear, evidence-informed way to illustrate how common modifiable risk and protective factors such as stress, sleep, and community engagement can have cascading benefits across brain health and workplace performance.
Studying brain capital reveals critical gaps and directs innovation toward what people need most
The concept of brain capital remains nascent. While relevant work is taking place across many disciplines, there is no single interdisciplinary agenda that could drive strategic investment, standard setting, or collective action. To study brain capital, three strands of inquiry are important: first, a need for deeper knowledge of brain health itself—including how to prevent and treat brain health conditions, as well as how to achieve optimal brain health across the life course; second, a need to expand the evidence base on brain skills, particularly their impact on productivity and organizational performance; and third, a need for research that supports communities, organizations, and systems seeking to structure themselves to promote brain health and positive brain skills at scale.
Together, these strands of inquiry form the backbone of a research agenda to advance brain capital. Current investments are not aligned with the scale or structure of the brain capital challenge, and without a shared research and measurement framework, progress is difficult to define, compare, or scale.69 By deepening knowledge and tracking what matters, stakeholders can be equipped with the insights they need to make informed policy, funding, and programmatic decisions around brain capital.
Studying brain capital includes 1) establishing brain capital as an interdisciplinary area of study; 2) measuring brain capital; and 3) accelerating R&D to build brain capital.
1. Establish brain capital as an interdisciplinary area of study
Establishing a framework for interdisciplinary study can accelerate progress in cross-cutting areas that span multiple fields, sectors, and geographies, enabling the design of scalable interventions. In other areas, such as geroscience, an interdisciplinary perspective has provided the shared priorities and measurement systems needed to mobilize investment, attract top talent, and accelerate innovation (Exhibit 3).
To bring this to life, research institutions could establish dedicated brain capital centers or programs that explicitly span these areas and unite them through shared data and measurement. Policymakers could recognize brain capital research as a priority area in national strategies, incentivizing interdisciplinary grants and translational partnerships. Innovators and industry leaders could coinvest in public–private initiatives to accelerate the development of tools and interventions. Funders could adopt the framework as a portfolio-structuring tool. By creating a framework for interdisciplinary work on brain capital within the research agenda, tracking global investment and returns becomes possible, positioning societies and companies alike to thrive in an increasingly brain-based economy.70
2. Measure brain capital
As brain capital gains traction globally, measurement should lead the way. There is no widely adopted framework to define success, benchmark progress, or compare outcomes. The creation of metrics, principles, and frameworks can support resource alignment, make the case for sustained investment, and unlock catalytic funding. For example, in 2007, the European Investment Bank issued the world’s first green use of proceeds bonds, the Climate Awareness Bond. This has now grown into more than $1 trillion in total issued value and has informed the creation of third-party standards.71 In other areas, the creation of the Human Capital Index and associated accounting frameworks quantified the contribution of health and education to workforce productivity, helping countries understand the cost of inaction.72
Existing tools, such as the Euro-Mediterranean Economists Association’s Brain Capital Dashboard, lay the groundwork for what is possible.73
Tool spotlight: Global Brain Capital Dashboard
The Brain Capital Dashboard (BCD) shows the “brain capital index” for more than 100 countries. Each country’s score is broken down into component metrics that enable users to assess strengths and vulnerabilities across domains.
Created by the Brain Capital Alliance,1 this interactive dashboard was developed by integrating open data sources from international agencies such as the World Health Organization, the World Bank, and the OECD. The tool includes component metrics across four areas—brain health, brain skills, brain-friendly environments, and policy and innovation enablers—and enables analysis of cross-country variations in indicators, policy strengths and gaps relevant to brain capital development, and progress over time. Some example indicators include suicide rates, participation rates in organized learning, access to social services, research investment, and health system readiness.
The BCD builds on brain health pillar data from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME). The IHME also provides additional country-level health detail, including COVID-19-era data and a broader set of disorders and metrics (for example, disability-adjusted life years).2
Building on these efforts, broader adoption, coordination, and refinement will be essential. For example, the field could define the domain and measurements for a brain capital “satellite account” to provide detail on brain capital that GDP may underrepresent. Like satellites orbiting Earth, satellite accounts typically orbit a country’s core economic statistics (such as GDP and industry data) but are separate from the core accounts.74 This could feed into national statistical systems to help estimate costs of inaction as well as the positive impact of brain capital investments.
Making brain capital measurable enables leaders to assess what is working, reallocate toward high-impact efforts, and communicate value to investors, funders, and the public.
3. Accelerate R&D to support the development of brain capital
R&D is a powerful tool for advancing brain capital. Today, most R&D funding related to the brain focuses on late-stage treatment, leaving prevention, early detection, and the science of developing positive brain skills underexplored.75 A more strategic approach could guide investment in brain capital across the highest impact areas within each stage of the R&D pipeline.
Centering brain capital as an interdisciplinary area of study is a necessary first step to integrating strategically across relevant R&D pipelines. Brain capital R&D efforts can be anchored across four stages of progress: foundational research, translation and adaptation, adoption and implementation, and scaling. Exhibit 4 highlights key questions to address at each stage of the R&D process and identifies specific actions that can accelerate progress.
Realizing the full potential requires sustained investment along the pipeline. Advances in breakthrough technologies such as brain–computer interfaces, precision medicine, and next-generation brain mapping are opening new frontiers in understanding and monitoring brain function. Increased focus on the science of aging is transforming the understanding of how workplace and community design can support high cognitive function in aging populations. Across the lifespan, large-scale, sex-stratified studies and the inclusion of hormonal status and modifiers can unlock insights specific to sex and life stage. These examples underscore the need to establish a brain capital R&D agenda that addresses emerging needs and creates new markets.
Strategic investment in the brain delivers high returns across health, productivity, and long-term growth
Capital deployment to sustain and grow brain capital is limited in scope and instruments. Maturing the brain capital investment landscape may involve public, commercial, and philanthropic capital to mobilize resources and direct them where they can have the greatest impact. This could require a mix of traditional (for example, grants, public budgets) and innovative financing mechanisms (such as blended finance, public–private partnerships) to derisk innovation, support capacity building, and resource the infrastructure needed to safeguard, foster, and study brain capital at scale.76
Stakeholders can act to invest in brain capital by employing a range of financing mechanisms to drive fit-for-purpose investment.
Driving meaningful investment in brain capital requires financial innovation that matches the unique characteristics of this domain. Across the value chain, this area experiences underinvestment relative to its costs and potential benefits to individuals, organizations, and societies, with a portfolio that is overweighted toward the use of specific non-return-seeking financial instruments. Investors often perceive long-time horizons, fragmented markets, or uncertain returns as deterrents to investing in otherwise high-potential opportunities. Brain health interventions often carry long payback periods, as benefits such as improved cognitive functioning, reduced healthcare costs, and enhanced productivity accumulate over decades. To bridge this gap, innovative financing could reduce risk for potential investors.
This is not the first time a new economic frontier has faced these hurdles. The Coalition for Mental Health Investment (CMHI) is among the groups creating financing guidance that is broadly applicable across the field of brain health. Exhibit 5 outlines examples of investment barriers, drawing on a more detailed body of work done by CMHI.77
Brain health investors can look to history, where they will find that early clean-energy markets encountered similar barriers. It was not until public and private actors coordinated the deployment of tools such as blended finance, catalytic philanthropy, loan guarantees, and public–private partnerships that markets for solar and wind matured and drew in commercial capital.78 A comparable financing approach is needed to develop and scale solutions for safeguarding brain health, fostering brain skills, and studying brain capital. Flexible financing models can help bridge this gap.79 Public and philanthropic funding can support early-stage research. Blended finance can reduce risk and crowd in private capital. Outcome-based mechanisms, such as social impact bonds, can tie funding to long-term results.
At the same time, innovative financing could also work within and alongside existing loan structures in low- and middle-income countries. Loan agreements with multilateral institutions, such as the International Monetary Fund or World Bank, sometimes include fiscal conditions that may not yet be met in these contexts (for example, a minimum threshold for health worker capacity). Incorporating broader brain capital considerations into such agreements—for instance, through flexible spending frameworks or targeted debt restructuring—could help countries direct funds toward areas of greatest need and value.
Tool spotlight: Mental health financing guidebook
The mental health financing guidebook Keeping investment in mind: Strategies for financing mental health1 was developed by the Coalition for Mental Health Investment. The guidebook is a practical resource designed to unlock greater investment in mental health. It maps the value chain from innovation to widescale adoption and helps funders identify evidence-informed financing mechanisms for their strategic use cases. The guidebook also showcases potential “scaling journeys” for interventions, spotlights key enablers of scaling, and offers case studies of innovative financing mechanisms in practice.
A group of organizations at the forefront of the brain economy movement are leading work in the area of brain investment, with plans to release a Brain Economy Action Forum–affiliated resource on the topic of brain lens investing and specific investable opportunities in the coming year.
Mobilizing stakeholders ensures brain capital becomes an organizational and societal priority
Global organizations and institutions such as the United Nations (UN),80 WHO,81 the G7,82 the G20,83 and the OECD84 have elevated brain capital on the global policy agenda. Across the world, there are examples of governments, companies, and specific sectors making large-scale investments. Despite this growing awareness and prioritization, these efforts remain fragmented, underfunded, and often siloed from economic and policy decision-making. In other words, the scale of current efforts does not yet match the scale of the risk and opportunity. Urgent, coordinated action is needed.
While specifics may differ, stakeholders across all sectors face rising costs, performance risks, and strategic blind spots if brain health remains underaddressed and brain skills remain underdeveloped. For example, a range of sector-specific consequences can emerge:
- Health sector: Systemic and integration challenges, including escalating costs, insufficient prevention and early-intervention infrastructures, and workforce shortages exacerbated by strain on high-acuity services
- Human services: Downstream social challenges for individuals as a result of unmet brain health needs, including homelessness, unemployment, criminal justice involvement, and intergenerational trauma
- Public sector: Strain on public budgets as governments navigate the challenges and health costs associated with aging populations
- Private sector: Burnout symptoms, absenteeism, attrition, presenteeism, and skill mismatches that can threaten workplace safety, productivity, and performance
- Civil society: Rising disconnection, polarization, and mental strain that challenge community cohesion
Amid these challenges lies an opportunity for each stakeholder group to lead within its sphere of influence, driving solutions that improve brain health and skills alongside strengthening organizations, economies, and societies over the long term.
Mobilizing to advance brain capital includes 1) engaging stakeholders to develop a shared vision and chart a coordinated path forward, and 2) embedding brain capital into strategy, operations, and culture.
1. Engage stakeholders to develop a shared vision and chart a coordinated path forward
Creating the full potential of brain capital means evolving from fragmented efforts into a more coordinated movement. Building on current momentum, the next phase of work is to unify these efforts around a shared vision: aligning priorities, accelerating action, and driving toward shared goals.
Other global coalitions offer powerful lessons. The Global Coalition on Aging (GCOA) convenes business, government, and civil society to position longevity as an economic opportunity.85 Through strategic partnerships and targeted advocacy, the GCOA shapes policies on age-inclusive workforces, care of older people, and healthy aging, demonstrating how cross-sector collaboration can drive change. The Global Cooperation Barometer 2025 underscores that cooperation is critical to brain capital, particularly in areas of innovation, climate, and health.86
Organized by the World Economic Forum in partnership with the McKinsey Health Institute, the Brain Economy Action Forum was launched in January 2025 to convene a dynamic group of stakeholders globally and put brain capital at the center of global dialogues and drive action toward sustainable economic growth and societal well-being.
Building on this work, High Lantern Group, the Milken Institute, the World Economic Forum, and the McKinsey Health Institute have developed a blueprint for global coordination, grounded in a mapping that identified around 50 organizations across the world that are already engaging explicitly in brain capital work, embracing not only the substance of the work but also the terminology of the brain economy. This work was informed by a series of interviews with experts from past economic movements, industry, academia, and policy.
This mapping exercise found that, while the stakeholder base of those engaged in brain capital work is broad, it is currently weighted toward private commercial actors. This distribution highlights the momentum building within the private sector around this topic.
These organizations are not clustered in a single geography. Activity among engaged stakeholders spans every major global region, suggesting both the universality of brain capital challenges and the potential of global collaboration (Exhibit 6a).
Within the current landscape, mobilization is the most common focus area for engaged organizations. Some 38 organizations were identified as working on efforts related to mobilizing around brain capital (Exhibit 6b). This demonstrates that organizations recognize the need for coordination to align efforts and accelerate impact.
Global coordination is a critical foundation for the mobilization needs described throughout this report. Without a coordinated approach, brain capital initiatives risk fragmentation, duplication, and missed opportunities at a moment when demand for solutions has never been higher.
A dedicated coordinating entity is needed to accomplish four core functions:
- Knowledge development: Invest in generating new knowledge that advances the growth of brain capital
- Thought leadership and communication: Lead dissemination of knowledge and insights
- Mobilization: Mobilize leaders across sectors and regions toward a unifying set of goals and metrics
- Cross-sector coordination: Support coordination among aligned efforts globally to maximize the ROI in the brain economy
Shaped in close partnership with the stakeholders leading this movement, a dedicated entity would translate vision into sustained action, including guiding future investment, innovation, and collaboration around brain capital.
2. Embed brain capital into strategy, operations, and culture
In every sector, brain capital investment is emerging as a tool for innovation and resilience alongside building long-term relevance and impact. Brain capital investments also complement AI adoption. As organizations enable digital transformation, parallel investments in brain capital ensure that technology augments rather than erodes human performance. Conversely, as societies and organizations advance brain capital, they will be better equipped to fully harness the potential of AI to drive economic and social progress.
When organizations invest in brain capital, the effects do not stop at the individual. They ripple outward, strengthening teams, transforming organizations, and shaping healthier, more resilient communities.
It begins with the individual. Investments in brain capital enhance well-being and performance across the life course. Within teams and organizations, these individual gains can lead to measurable improvements in productivity, innovation, and decision-making. Brain capital strategies help attract and retain talent, especially in high-pressure and high-demand fields. They also reduce absenteeism and support a healthier, more engaged workforce. When organizations support the brain health and skills of their people, they build stronger, more agile workforces ready to meet the demands of a rapidly evolving economy.
As brain capital strategies take hold, they extend beyond organizations, contributing to healthier populations, stronger education-to-employment pipelines, and reduced strain on caregivers and public services. When brain capital is a shared local priority, it can spark meaningful place-based transformation, amplifying economic opportunity and social well-being.
Translating vision into action does not come without challenges. While the case for investing in brain capital is clear, many organizations encounter barriers that can slow or stall momentum. Mobilizing around brain capital requires overcoming constraints such as the following:
- Limited internal awareness and siloed decision-making across human resources and strategic functions. Building brain capital means moving from a human resources initiative to a CEO- and board-level priority.
- Underappreciation of near-term value. Resources dedicated to improving brain capital are too often seen as costs rather than investments in value creation.
To move past these barriers, organizations need a disciplined, sustained approach to designing, resourcing, and delivering change. The 5As framework—aspire, assess, architect, act, advance—offers a road map that any organization can adapt to its scale, sector, and goals (table).87
The 5As framework provides a road map for organizational change.
| Aspire | Where do we want to go? |
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| Assess | How ready are we to go there? |
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| Architect | What must we do to get there? |
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| Act | How do we manage the journey? |
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| Advance | How do we sustain and scale impact? |
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Whether a leader is a CEO navigating global markets, a mayor shaping early-childhood programs, or a leader building the next generation of thinkers, their organization has a critical role to play. For CEOs, embedding brain capital into talent and innovation strategy ensures resilience in the era of AI. For healthcare and life sciences leaders, it could mean investing in research and care delivery innovation. For governments, this could mean building systems that support brain health and skills from early life through aging. Taken together, these actions equip organizations not only to build brain capital internally but to lead externally, setting the pace in a competitive and fast-changing landscape.
Conclusion
Brain capital is a defining driver of prosperity, and the value of brain capital is being redefined. As AI and automation transform the global economy, many traditional sources of advantage, such as low-cost labor, are eroding. Markets are moving from being tied to physical assets to being driven by ideas, algorithms, and the ability to learn at an astronomical pace. On the other hand, while AI holds great promise for enhancing productivity and even supporting brain health, its growing role in daily life also raises new concerns about mental well-being and social connection. How countries and organizations evolve brain capital strategies to harness the complementary strengths of human intelligence and technological capabilities will become a defining source of resilience and value.
This report makes the case for centering brain capital as a strategic economic asset. The opportunity has never been greater. Advances in neuroscience have created the conditions for transformative progress. This report has focused on the economic case for investing in brain capital, but the potential impact on individual lives and families must also remain front and center in broader discussions. Scaling known brain health interventions could reclaim more than 260 million disability-adjusted life years globally.88
For businesses, the case is urgent. Burnout, absenteeism, and talent shortages are already hampering growth. In a world where 59 percent of the workforce is expected to require upskilling by 2030, strengthening brain capital is necessary as a core talent and innovation strategy. Organizations that embed brain health and brain skills into their business models will be better positioned to adapt, compete, and grow.
This report outlines five levers to activate brain capital: safeguarding brain health; fostering brain skills; and studying, investing in, and mobilizing around brain capital. These actions are mutually reinforcing and can be pursued at any level. They offer a pathway not just to address today’s challenges but to shape a stronger, more resilient future.
First, treat brain health as foundational. No brain capital agenda will succeed without expanding access to the strategies, services, and support mechanisms that safeguard brain health.
Second, foster brain skills across the life course. Developing these skills requires intentional support in a variety of systems and settings, including early childhood, formal education systems, workplaces, and programs to support healthy aging.
Third, study brain capital. This means elevating brain capital as an area of interdisciplinary research that can connect siloed efforts, attract more strategic investment, and support crucial work on measurement.
Fourth, invest in brain capital at scale. This means unlocking funding, derisking innovation, and directing resources toward the highest-impact opportunities. Governments can create enabling environments. Investors and philanthropies can expand catalytic capital. Businesses can lead by example, testing new approaches and embedding brain skills into talent pipelines.
Finally, mobilize stakeholders to turn momentum into sustained action, engaging a broader set of actors, not just within health or education but in finance, labor, technology, and other sectors to elevate brain capital as an economic and societal priority.
The brain is a driver of human intelligence and endless possibility. The rise of AI underscores the critical need to develop human capacity in equal measures. Investing in brain capital is a path to more fulfilling lives, resilient economies, and stronger societies.
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